The research-practice gap in teacher education

Evidence-based teaching is an important aspect of teacher educators’ professionalization, which refers to teaching practices based on robust evidence retrieved from quality research studies. Research on evidence-based practices in medicine has shown that knowledge, beliefs and attitudes play a pivotal role in the acceleration of implementation of Evidence-based practices. In education, this topic has received little attention within the literature despite the high demand by European educational reforms for the use of research evidence into teaching practice. Because teacher educators play a crucial role in the classroom ecology of teacher education, a consistent use of Evidence-based teaching practices in this field is especially important and may accelerate a more rapid shift toward evidence-based teaching practices at large. The present thesis contributes to research and literature with two studies. The first study focuses on the development of a valid and reliable instrument to measure teacher educators’ practical knowledge, self-efficacy beliefs and attitudes toward evidence-based teaching strategies and provides empirical evidence, which support the heterogeneity of the group of teacher educators. The second study sheds light on the relationship between teacher educators’ research experience, practical knowledge, self-efficacy beliefs and the frequency of evidence-based teaching implementation and describes the challenges teacher educators face concerning evidence-based teaching. Given the lack of studies in teacher education and based on existing instruments from the medical field the first study focused on the development of the evidence-based teaching scale (EBTS). Teacher educators (N = 243) from Germany, Switzerland, Austria and the United Kingdom completed the EBTS scale. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and a Parallel Analysis (PA) were conducted to reduce the number of items on the scale and to test a three-factor structure for the newly developed instrument. Cronbach’s alpha was > .80 for each sub-scale. The results of the first study provide evidence to support the psychometric structure of the EBTS in teacher education and, in particular, in a heterogeneous sample of teacher educators. Significant differences were also identified between highly research experienced teacher educators and the less research-involved teacher educators. The findings emphasize the need for further professional development tailored to diverse teacher educator groups. For the second study of this thesis, a set of mediation analysis were run to identify the role of self-efficacy beliefs and practical knowledge in the interplay among teacher educators research experience and frequency of research evidence implementation. Self-efficacy seemed to be a stronger predictor of how frequently one uses evidence-based practices in comparison to practical knowledge. Moreover, the study identified potential challenges, reported from teacher educators, which might undermine evidence implementation in university teaching. Implications about the role of self-efficacy beliefs in teacher educators’ professional learning and development along with future steps that are necessary to increase the implementation of Evidence-based teaching practices in teacher education will be discussed as part of study 2 and in the general introduction of this thesis

Self-employment in UK law

The United Kingdom has noted a rapid increase in the number of self-employed persons in the last forty years. This has prompted a return to the debate on the regulation of this category of workers. What are the key characteristics of the self-employed? Are they covered by labour law and social security regulations? This chapter answers these questions by looking at the legal framework applicable to the self-employed in the UK. In section 2, the author characterizes the main tendencies regarding self-employed activity in the United Kingdom as presented in a report of the Office of National Statistics for 2020. In sections 3 and 4, she analyses the definition and the legal framework that guarantee protection applicable to the self-employed. The author places particular emphasis on the tri-partite character of the British legal system in individual employment law, which includes certain categories of self-employed in the British definition of worker. Finally, section 5 is devoted to the ever more popular phenomenon of “bogus self-employment” and the legal mechanisms designed to combat it

Rethinking determinants of primary school teachers’ technology acceptance during the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic forced teachers to suddenly change their teaching mode from face-to-face to emergency remote teaching creating the biggest disruption in the history of education. Despite facing significant challenges such as a lack of proper information technology training, teaching unprepared students, and infrastructural barriers, there is a gap in research on primary school teachers’ readiness to integrate technology. This study aims to address this gap by utilizing the technology acceptance model to explore the relationships between primary school teachers’ computer self-efficacy beliefs, attitudes, and intentions to incorporate computer-based technology during times of disruption. Participants were N = 144 Greek, primary school teachers, who taught in virtual settings during the pandemic. Findings from structural equation modeling showed that self-efficacy beliefs, perceived ease of use, and perceived usefulness are strong predictors of teachers’ attitudes towards computer use. The study adds to the scarce literature on the crucial role of teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs as drivers of their intention to use technology during emergency remote teaching. Additionally, it highlights the need to consider the unique circumstances in which technology is used and provides insights that can inform the design of effective interventions and policies

Evidence-Based Practice in Teacher Education: The Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Practical Knowledge

European educational reforms call for the implementation of evidence-based teaching (EBT) in universities. Based on the evidence-based research paradigm in medical education, this study investigates the relationship between teacher educators' research experience, practical knowledge, self-efficacy beliefs, and frequency of EBT implementation. We report on survey data from N = 243 teacher educators from Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. A set of mediation analyses were run to identify the mediating role of self-efficacy beliefs and practical knowledge in the interplay among teacher educators' research experience and frequency of research evidence implementation. The results indicate that self-efficacy beliefs are a strong predictor of how frequently teacher educators implement EBT. Implications about the role of self-efficacy beliefs in teacher educators' professional learning and development along with future steps that are necessary to increase the implementation of EBT practices in teacher education will be discussed

Turning research evidence into teaching action: Teacher educators’ attitudes toward evidence-based teaching

Teacher educators are seen as potential brokers able to bridge the research-practice gap and accelerate the adoption of current evidence in teacher education. The present study focuses on the in-depth exploration of teacher educators’ attitudes toward evidence-based teaching practices and provides a deeper understanding of the challenges encountered when turning evidence into teaching action. Moreover, facilitating factors to foster the implementation of evidence-based teaching are explored. Twelve teacher educators working in various teacher education programs in Germany reflected on challenges and facilitators to evidence-based teaching implementation. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data. Results indicate that although teacher educators show positive attitudes towards evidence-based teaching, they still feel challenged to translate research evidence into their teaching practice. Our research suggests that evidence-based teaching may not be successfully implemented if teacher educators lack appropriate preparation and support from higher education institutions

Genomic investigations of unexplained acute hepatitis in children

Since its first identification in Scotland, over 1,000 cases of unexplained paediatric hepatitis in children have been reported worldwide, including 278 cases in the UK1. Here we report an investigation of 38 cases, 66 age-matched immunocompetent controls and 21 immunocompromised comparator participants, using a combination of genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic and immunohistochemical methods. We detected high levels of adeno-associated virus 2 (AAV2) DNA in the liver, blood, plasma or stool from 27 of 28 cases. We found low levels of adenovirus (HAdV) and human herpesvirus 6B (HHV-6B) in 23 of 31 and 16 of 23, respectively, of the cases tested. By contrast, AAV2 was infrequently detected and at low titre in the blood or the liver from control children with HAdV, even when profoundly immunosuppressed. AAV2, HAdV and HHV-6 phylogeny excluded the emergence of novel strains in cases. Histological analyses of explanted livers showed enrichment for T cells and B lineage cells. Proteomic comparison of liver tissue from cases and healthy controls identified increased expression of HLA class 2, immunoglobulin variable regions and complement proteins. HAdV and AAV2 proteins were not detected in the livers. Instead, we identified AAV2 DNA complexes reflecting both HAdV-mediated and HHV-6B-mediated replication. We hypothesize that high levels of abnormal AAV2 replication products aided by HAdV and, in severe cases, HHV-6B may have triggered immune-mediated hepatic disease in genetically and immunologically predisposed children

‘Business Risk-Assumption’ as a Criterion for the Determination of EU Employment Status: A Critical Evaluation

Abstract In the European legal order, the criterion of ‘business risk-assumption’ is increasingly being used by the ECJ as an element that would point to the existence of an independent working relationship. To what type of risks is the Court referring to? What are the normative underpinnings of this criterion and is it still effective in classifying modern-day workers? This paper responds to these questions by analysing and critically evaluating the use of ‘business risk-assumption’ as a criterion for the determination of EU employment status. More precisely, in section 2, I revisit the classical paradigm that led to the adoption of this criterion and demonstrate how it has been superseded by recent changes in market structures. In section 3, I show why employment status cannot just be left up to the parties and advocate for the need for an alternative ‘risk’-based criterion that would mitigate the deficiencies of the current framework, precipitating the fair mutualisation of risks between the parties. Finally, in section 4, I present and critically evaluate alternative ‘risk’-related criteria that have been proposed in the literature. After analysing the advantages and disadvantages of each approach, I argue in favour of a classification criterion based on the ‘involuntary assumption of risks’ measured by the ‘inability of a person to spread his risks’. If adopted, the proffered criterion would lead to the expansion of the EU nomen juris of ‘worker’, allowing for the protection of vulnerable quasi-subordinate persons that are excluded from the current EU ‘worker’ definition.</jats:p

The new EU Directive on Transparent and Predictable Working Conditions in the context of new forms of employment

The article examines the reach, protective effects and limitations of the recently adopted European Union (EU) Directive on Transparent and Predictable Working Conditions. After explaining the need for a new instrument, the article analyses the Directive’s protective provisions. Cases of the European Court of Justice are presented to provide the wider context and explain how the EU social acquis impacts upon the implementation of the Directive. Finally, new developments in the EU labour and social field are discussed, making recommendations of possible avenues for providing protection to a larger category of workers.</jats:p

Devising a refined framework for distinguishing between ‘workers’ and ‘self-employed persons-undertakings’ in the EU labour and competition law fields: Lessons from the EU agency acquis

In recent years, the European labour market has undergone a radical change. In addition to part-time, fixed-term and agency work (the original ‘atypical’ contracts), new casual forms of employment have become more prevalent such as zero-hours contracts, employee sharing, ICT-based mobile work, interim management, portfolio, crowd, and platform work. These new forms of employment have blurred the lines between dependent and independent work, leaving many individuals standing uncomfortably in the grey area between ‘employment’ and ‘self-employment’. On the one hand, these new working professionals (i.e., Uber drivers) do not satisfy the archetypical paradigm of subordinate employees working under open-ended contracts of employment for one principal throughout their lives. On the other, they are not entrepreneurs free to provide their services in the market in whatever way they please. Since they exhibit characteristics of both categories, their classification has become increasingly troublesome. Are all these quasi-subordinate individuals ‘self-employed persons-undertakings’ or are they ‘workers’? In other words, should they be captured by, or considered irrelevant to, EU labour and competition law provisions and how do we decide? This thesis responds to these challenges by coming up with a refined and detailed framework that would help judges and legislators classify working individuals. The originality of the thesis lies in its unique methodological approach of using tools and indicia that have been provided within the sphere of EU competition law to elucidate our understanding of who constitutes a modern-day ‘worker’. More particularly, instead of focusing on the notion of ‘subordination’ and the well-rehearsed debate on ‘worker vs self-employed status’, the thesis ventures into competition law to identify the instances when working persons can be said to be ‘integrated’ into their employers’ undertaking. In the competition law field, the ECJ has drawn an explicit jurisprudential parallel between the categories of ‘agents’ and ‘workers’, specifying the criteria that need to be present for an ‘agent’ to be integrated into his/her principal’s undertaking in the same way that a ‘worker’ is integrated into his/her employer’s business unit. The thesis draws on the voluminous guidance and case law that has been provided in the EU competition law ‘agency’ field on the instances when an ‘agent’ is in a comparable position to a ‘worker’ (from an integration point of view) and uses it as a starting point for the development of a refined and detailed framework for distinguishing between integrated ‘workers’ and unintegrated ‘self-employed persons-undertakings’ in the EU competition law field. It then brings the proposed framework into other areas of EU law that rely on the same concept of ‘worker’. Overall, this doctoral thesis adds to the existing literature by providing an up-to-date, refined account of the basic characteristics of integrated working activity that would support a broader and more holistic conception of ‘worker’. If adopted, the proposed framework can act as a blueprint in the hands of EU judges and legislators in their attempts to classify working individuals who are engaged in complex, casual forms of work. On a domestic level, national legislators would have to provide explicit reasons for depriving certain categories of the working population of labour and social protections when the latter have been proven to share the same characteristics of integration as archetypical workers. This would allow for a larger number of people to be able to take advantage of favourable EU and national labour and social protection legislation and to engage in collective bargaining. Finally, even though definitions may differ for the purposes of tax law, undoubtedly, a robust labour and competition law ‘worker’ conceptualisation can have cross-field implications for both individuals and the State itself.Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC DTP studentship); Cambridge Trust (Cambridge European Scholarship); Onassis Foundation (Onassis Scholarship